Effects of Technology on Modern Day Architecture and Design

Effects of Technology on Modern Day Architecture and Design Architecture has revolutionized and changed in the twenty-first century compared to the nineteen century due to technology. Even though many factors have played major roles in the changing of architecture, technology has played the most important role for architectural change. Architecture and technology will be two terms that will be used throughout this paper. According to the Webster dictionary, architecture is defined as the art or science of designing and creating buildings while technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry. Technology nowadays plays an important role in our societies since most buildings especially condos and houses are way different compared to the ones that were built in the nineteen century. Today’s buildings/condos in our societies are now built mostly through the use of digital visualization technologies that are purposely planned to create certain kinds of impression and atmosphere in our soci ety. Technology and architecture goes hand in hand as both terms benefit from each other due to the fact that technology has helped architects in drawing their designs more effectively and efficiently instead of using their hands. This essay will aim to analyze how modern technologies are operating as a key part of architecture and design, whether technology is having a positive or negative impact on architecture and architectural work methods. There will also be a discussion on Computer-aided design (CAD). In relating it to the course, this paper will mostly touch on hyper change since its evident that technology is indeed changing how individuals perceive and understand objects and structures. The most important technology/software that this essay will look at is the Computer-aided design (CAD) and Geographic Information System (GIS) and how both have affected architecture and design. At the moment, technology has totally revolutionized our city we live in and our way of living. W alking around downtown Toronto and seeing buildings such as the OCAD building and the Royal Ontario museum indicates how far buildings have change due to technology. Looking at how far technology has brought architecture, it’s safe to say that technology will open new worlds by assisting in the making of new materials to construct buildings. Notes on modern architecture by Antoine Picon shows that architecture has been closely related to technology since the nineteen century and argues that modernism’s tendency towards architecture has made it possible to elevate the living settings of the masses. Scholars such as Banham have argued that technology certainly has shaped architecture throughout history. Examples such as the creation of the Flying Buttress in Europe allowed Master Builders to restore the enormous walls of Romanesque churches, the Etruscan keystone arch allowed the Roman Empire to make tough and strong bridges. The most outstanding example is the development of skyscrapers which was made possible by the invention of mass produced steel and safety elevators. In the world, the tallest skyscraper is the Burj Khalifa in Dubai while in Toronto, the highest skyscraper is the CN Tower but the tallest inhabitable is the First Canadian Place. Banham looks at how technology should be considered as an essential part of architecture but does not really discuss the effects and impacts technology is having on modern day architecture. This essay will tackle this issue and expand on the ideas Banham out forward in his book and other scholarly works by different authors. This research paper will have an introduction where major terminologies that will be used throughout the paper will be defined. The introduction will also have the thesis and the arguments supporting the thesis. The next section of this paper will solely discuss Computer-aided design (CAD), the types of CAD and the contributions that this software has made to architecture and design. The next section will look at will be the advantages and disadvantages of technology on architecture. Research shows that indeed technology has had a positive effect on architecture so these advantages will be explored further. Lastly, this paper will look at what technology can do for architecture in the future. In conclusion, this paper will summarize all the arguments and points put together and opinions of scholars will also be touched upon. Annotated Bibliography Banham, R. (1984).The architecture of the well-tempered environment(2nd ed). London: Architectural Press. In this book, the author points out that technology, human needs, and environmental concerns are all interconnected and all of them play a vital part in the development of architecture. He argues that technological and mechanical advancements in simple areas such as ventilation, heating and other 20th century designs needs more attention since architecture is not just about designs and buildings but also the mechanical systems that makes them work.. Crouch, D. P. (1985).History of architecture: Stonehenge to skyscrapers. New York: McGraw-Hill. In this book, Crouch tackles architecture from a historic point of view from the Stonehenge in England to the skyscrapers which are seen around the world mostly in developed countries. Crouch talks about basically how far architecture has come as she explores architecture in ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome. Crouch argues that architecture is now developing into a science-based due to the progression of technology. Donald, Watson (1984). Architecture, Technology, and Environment. Journal of Architectural Education Vol. 51, No. 2 (Nov., 1997), pp. 119-126 Published by:Taylor Francis, Ltd.on behalf of theAssociation of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, Inc. URL: http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/stable/1425452 In this journal, Donald argues that a small number of architectural educators dismiss the fact that technology is part of architecture and he insists that both architecture and technology are dependent on each other. Donald also argues that technology puts greater emphasis and higher expectations on architecture due to the fact that technology in architecture is not just about simply the beautiful structures and buildings we see but it is about the knowledge and information the society as a whole gain in the making of these structures. Encarnaà §Ãƒ £o, J. L., Lindner, R., Schlechtendahl, E. G. (. G. (1990).Computer aided design: Fundamentals and system architectures(2nd ed.). Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag. This book explains the computer aided design software in particularly how it works, its principles, ways and how it has helped in the development and revolution of architecture. Encarnaà §Ãƒ £o and his co-authors identifies the main components of CAD and they concluded by showing the steps involve in making this machine Heynen, Hilde. (1999).Architecture and modernity: A critique. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. This author suggests a remarkable outline of investigation that explains the history of modern movements and difficulty it has faced. Hilde tries to connect modern movement and cultural theory of modernity. Hilde argues that architecture and modernity relies relatively greatly on the kind of modernity being created. Hilde asks the question â€Å"what relations exist or ought to exist between architecture and modernity?† .So with this asked, she explores how architecture and modernity is connected. Karl D. Stephan. (2005). Masterworks of Technology: The Story of Creative Engineering, Architecture, and Design. Technology and Culture, Volume 46, Number 3 Retrieved from http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/tech/summary/v046/46.3stephan.html According to this journal review by Karl, technology has always been part of human society. The author talks about technological creativeness and vision throughout the years. Karl argues that science and engineering has come together and its pushing architecture to a new and different level never imagined before from the pyramids of Egypt to now skyscrapers seen around the world. Karl talks about the framework involve in skyscraper developments especially that of the Chicago’s Sears Tower as he builds on the ideas of F. R. Khan’s influence important on skyscraper design. Le Corbusier. (1952). Towards a new architecture. London: The Architectural Press. In this book, Le Corbusier book talks about architecture and the society as he wrote about new advancements that we see today in our communities today. He parallels the speed of which architecture is growing with that of the advancement in the society. Le Corbusier also addresses five principles of modern architecture, mass production and industrialization. Rivard, H. (2000). A Survey On The Impact Of Information Technology On The Canadian Architecture, Engineering And Construction Industry. Journal of Information Technology in Construction (ITcon), v.5, p.37 In this survey, researches aim in determining the impact of technology on architecture, construction and engineering. This survey proved that all architects now have access to computer and only one percent of the architects that answered the questionnaire study indicated that they do not use computers to help them with their work. The survey proved that truly most when it comes to the drawing of design most architects use CAD. This survey showed technology is an essential part of architecture, construction and engineering field now and almost every individual that works in these fields rely on them to help him/her work efficiently. Stephenson, S. (2007).The integration of technology into a landscape architecture graduate program: A case study.(Order No. NR39441, University of Toronto (Canada)).ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 232. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/docview/304757618?accountid=15182 This is a case study show the ways in which technology is contributing to the landscape of architecture and the difficult process involved in it. The study mostly touches on design process and studio culture while it looks at how technology has affected this area either in a positive, neutral or negative way. Throughout this paper, it’s clear that technology has change landscape architecture especially when it comes to how materials are produced and how designers all over the world are able to contact each other in a matter of seconds due to technology. Saeideh Feizi Azarshahr, Alireza Motamadniya, Mostafa Basiri (2013). New Technologies in Modern Architecture and its Interaction with Traditional Architecture. Research Journal of Chemical and Environmental Sciences Vol 1 Issue 3: 70-80 In this article, Azarshahr et al argues that the use of technology results in the establishment of flawless and perfect buildings and technology has always been a part of architecture as Azarshahr et al describes two types of technology: traditional technology and modern technology. According to these authors, traditional technology has not been documented as much compared to modern technology and this modern technology has led to the computerization and industrialization of architecture. REFERENCES Banham, R. (1984).The architecture of the well-tempered environment(2nd ed). London: Architectural Press. Crouch, D. P. (1985).History of architecture: Stonehenge to skyscrapers. New York: McGraw-Hill. Donald, Watson (1984). Architecture, Technology, and Environment. Journal of Architectural Education Vol. 51, No. 2 (Nov., 1997), pp. 119-126 Published by:Taylor Francis, Ltd.on behalf of theAssociation of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, Inc. URL: http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/stable/1425452 Encarnaà §Ãƒ £o, J. L., Lindner, R., Schlechtendahl, E. G. (. G. (1990).Computer aided design: Fundamentals and system architectures(2nd ed.). Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag. Heynen, Hilde. (1999).Architecture and modernity: A critique. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Karl D. Stephan. (2005). Masterworks of Technology: The Story of Creative Engineering, Architecture, and Design. Technology and Culture, Volume 46, Number 3 Retrieved from  http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/tech/summary/v046/46.3stephan.html Le Corbusier. (1952). Towards a new architecture. London: The Architectural Press. Rivard, H. (2000). A Survey On The Impact Of Information Technology On The Canadian Architecture, Engineering And Construction Industry. Journal of Information Technology in Construction (ITcon), v.5, p.37 Stephenson, S. (2007).The integration of technology into a landscape architecture graduate program: A case study.(Order No. NR39441, University of Toronto (Canada)).ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 232. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/docview/304757618?accountid=15182 Saeideh Feizi Azarshahr, Alireza Motamadniya, Mostafa Basiri (2013). New Technologies in Modern Architecture and its Interaction with Traditional Architecture. Research Journal of Chemical and Environmental Sciences Vol 1 Issue 3: 70-80

Defining Moments in Canada Essay

Defining Moments in Canadian History During the 20th century, there were many events and situations that helped define the country of Canada. There were positive moments, but also a good amount of negative ones. Of course, the successful events kept Canadians in a positive light, but the negative situations helped Canada learn from its mistakes and went to prove how strong and brave its citizens were/are. The three most defining moments would have to be the Dieppe Raid, the Invasion of Normandy, and the Battle of Vimy Ridge. These three events not only assisted the country to become what it has today, but has also defined what the nation has become. The first defining moment of the 20th century was the Battle of Vimy Ridge. This particular battle was a military engagement located in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France during World War I. The main fighters were Canadian Corps against the German army. The battle took place from April 9 to 12, 1917. This was the beginning stage for the Battle of Arras, led by the British. â€Å"The Canadian Corps was ordered to seize Vimy Ridge in April 1917. Situated in northern France, the heavily-fortified seven-kilometre ridge held a commanding view over the Allied lines. The Canadians would be assaulting over an open graveyard since previous French attacks had failed with over 100,000 casualties. â€Å"(Cook) Main objectives were to take control over German-held high ground along an extensive escarpment. Doing so would allow the southern flank to advance without having to be heavily worried about enemy fire. With support from a nearby barrage, Canadians were able to capture most of the ridge within the first day of attack. The town of Thelus fell the second day, as did the crest of the ridge. The final objective was to capture another ridge located outside the town of Givenchy-en-Gohelle, which fell to the Canadian Corps on April 12. After that incident, the German forces had no choice but to retreat. This quick battle was successful due to a mix of tactical and technical innovation, powerful artillery support, extensive training, and thought-out planning. This event is a defining moment for Canada because it was the first time that all four sectors of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a whole, therefore becoming a Canadian Nationalistic symbol of sacrifice and great achievement. â€Å"The Canadian success at Vimy demonstrated that no position was invulnerable to a meticulously planned and conducted assault. This success had a profound effect on Allied planning. Though the victory at Vimy came swiftly, it did not come without cost. There were 3,598 dead out of 10,602 Canadian casualties. After Vimy, the Canadian Corps went from one success to another, to be crowned by their achievements in the 1918 â€Å"advance to victory†. This record won for Canada a separate signature on the Versailles Peace Treaty ending the War.†(Battle of Vimy Ridge) The second definitive moment of the 20th century was the Dieppe Raid. This event was a World War II attack on the German occupied port of Dieppe on August 19,1942. The raid took place on the northern coast of France, and began around 5 am. Allied commanders were forced to call a retreat, a mere 6 hours later. Objectives included seizing and holding a major port to prove that it was possible and also to gather information. Allies also planned on destroying coastal defences, port structures, and all strategic buildings. The allied countries knew that they would eventually have to attack, so they figured they needed the practice. Another goal was to take some of Hitler’s attention off of trying to invade Russia. The plan was to use 5000 Canadians and have a 1-day attack and retreat on the Nazi-held coastal town of Dieppe. The plan was also to be secretive and attack at dark. None of these objectives were met. â€Å"The Soviet Union was pressuring the Allies to open a second front in Western Europe. The Allies, however, needed to build up their military resources before undertaking a full campaign. They felt that a large raid on the coast of France could force the Germans to divert more of their military resources away from the Soviet Union and also help in the planning for the full-scale assault to come. â€Å"(Canada Remembers) The first mistake was that they reached Dieppe in broad daylight, making this â€Å"surprise attack† not very surprising. Also, the Dieppe forces became on high alert at Dieppe because French agents warned them that the British were showing a great deal of interest in the area. When the Allied forces arrived at the port city, its flanking cliffs were well defended. Thesoldiers were met with very heavy machine gun fire from little stations dug into overlooking cliffs. The Allied fire support was not nearly adequate enough and the attackers were basically trapped on the beach by series of obstacles and never-ending German fire. After less than 6 hours, the Allies were forced to surrender and many of the soldiers were stranded on the port, to be k illed or to be taken prisoner by the Germans. The Allied forces were beaten severely, they definitely lost this battle, and they lost it hard. Numerous tactical and technical errors were made, resulting in huge amounts of Canadian deaths. â€Å"The raid was a disaster: More than 900 Canadian soldiers were killed, and thousands more were wounded and taken prisoner. Despite the bloodshed, the raid provided valuable lessons for subsequent Allied amphibious assaults on Africa, Italy and Normandy. â€Å"(Herd) This was, after all, one of the first attempts by the Allies on a German-held port. This was an important, defining moment for Canadians because the lessons learned there became the guidelines of what not to do in regards to future endeavours, and influenced preparations for the highly successful Normandy landings. The last definitive moment of the 20th century was the Invasion of Normandy (D-Day) on June 6, 1944. The Allies attacked the German-held beaches of Normandy, France towards the end of World War II. The landings were done in two phases; the first was an airborne assault landing consisting of 24 000 British, US, and Canadian soldiers shortly after midnight. The second was an amphibious landing around 6:30 am of Allied infantry. This attack was executed by all elements: land, sea, and air. The invasion required transportation of soldiers, and materials from England by aircraft and ships. These particular landings took place on an 20 km stretch of the Normandy coast on 5 seperate beach areas: Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword. The British armies took control over Sword and Gold, US took charge over Utah and Omaha, and Canadian forces stormed Juno. â€Å"On June 6th, 1944, the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division and the 2nd Armoured Brigade were tasked with establishing a bridgehead on the beach codenamed â€Å"Juno†. This was an eight-kilometre long stretch of beach bordering Saint-Aubin, Bernieres, Courseulles-sur-Mer and Graye-sur-Mer. Assault troops were then to move towards the Carpiquet airfield, 18 kilometres inland. The 3rd Infantry Division, under Major-General R. F. L. Keller, was under command of the Second British Army. It was flanked on the left by the 3rd British Infantry Division that was to land on Sword beach (Lion-sur-Mer, Langrune-sur-Mer). To the right, the 50th British Division had as its target â€Å"Gold Beach† (La Riviere, Le Hamel, and Arromanches).†(D-Day) Unlike the previous, unsuccessful raid at Dieppe, surprise was achieved at Normandy, thanks to bad weather and a very successful deception plan deployed in the months prior to the attack. The deceptive plan was used to distract Germany’s attention from the possibility of landings in Normandy. Another key success was to convince Adolf Hitler that landings would occur at the Pas-de-Calais. At the same time of the attack, there were also decoy operations taking place. â€Å"Fourteen thousand young Canadians stormed Juno Beach on D-Day. Their courage, determination and self-sacrifice were the immediate reasons for the success in those critical hours. The fighting they endured was fierce and frightening. The price they paid was high – the battles for the beachhead cost 340 Canadian lives and another 574 wounded. â€Å"(Juno Beach) By the end of D-Day, 30 000 Canadians had been successfully landed and all had penetrated further into France than any other Allied force! This was a defining moment for the country of Canada because, after all the previous, unsuccessful missions, they deserved a glorious victory. That is definitely what they got! All their hard work; preparing weapons, planting decoys, and all their extensive planning made this invasion so successful, and all the tedious work paid off. This event is definitive for me because my great-grandfather was involved in this attack, and thankfully returned home from it. There were definitely more than three defining moments for Canada during the 20th century, but the Battle of Vimy Ridge, the Dieppe Raid, and the Invasion of Normandy were three of the most significant. These events helped Canada grow as a nation, and made Canadians even more proud of their heritage and their country.

Succubus Heat CHAPTER 2

I don't really have anything against Canadians. They're nice. Really nice. But that didn't mean I wanted to go curling with them, and there was always a danger that if Jerome was in the right mood, he might decide to make this temporary assignment a permanent one. I didn't think he would, though. Underneath all the gruffness, Jerome liked me-inasmuch as a demon could truly like anyone. Admittedly, he'd liked me a little less since Seth had turned my life upside down last fall, but when I wasn't sporting massive attitude, I think I amused Jerome. Amusing things are few in the face of eternity, so hopefully that would be enough to ensure my job security. I left Belltown and headed over to Queen Anne, another Seattle neighborhood. I both lived and worked in Queen Anne, and if I was about to disappear for a while, my mortal employer should probably know. Unfortunately, going into work meant facing some unpleasant things that I wasn't really in the mood for tonight. â€Å"Georgina! What are you doing here?† Maddie Sato, the Brutus to my Caesar, came scurrying up to me as I entered Emerald City Books and Caf? ¦. In Maddie's defense, she hadn't known Seth and I were dating when they'd slept together. So, it wasn't like she'd knowingly stolen him from me. That didn't really change my feelings toward either of them, though. â€Å"I need to see Warren,† I said, suspecting I probably reeked of vodka and smoke. â€Å"Is he here?† She shook her head, making her glossy black hair sway. It was worn in a long, sleek style I'd taught her how to do. â€Å"He left about an hour ago. Didn't want to stick around for closing.† I glanced at a clock. I'd barely made it in before they locked the doors. I tapped my foot impatiently, wondering if I should call Warren at home. Finally, I asked, â€Å"You got a sec to go over some schedule stuff? I'm going to be out for a few days†¦or maybe more.† â€Å"Sure,† she said, smiling and showing dimples. â€Å"You want me to grab Doug too?† â€Å"He's here?† Both assistant managers closing in one night. It was a stroke of luck. I headed off to my office while she went to fetch her brother Doug. My desk was organized for a change, and I found the clipboard bearing the schedule for the next couple of weeks. I skimmed it, relieved to see we had a full complement of staff for a change. My immortal friends didn't understand why I cared so much about this job. There had been days recently-days when I didn't want to get out of bed because I was so depressed-that I'd wondered the same thing. But the truth was, eternity was an extremely long time, and I'd spent most of my time always occupied with some activity. It was part of my nature; I couldn't be idle. And sometimes- sometimes -I could get so caught up in the day-to-day affairs of the human world that I could almost pretend for a heartbeat that I was one of them again. â€Å"I don't think we'll need anyone to cover me,† I said when I heard the office door open a few minutes later. â€Å"Someone'll just need to take over my-† I looked up. Maddie had returned, along with Doug, but they weren't alone. Seth was with them. All the easy confidence I'd shown in the store, all the brashness and bravado I'd shown at the club†¦it all shriveled up into a cold, hard knot as I looked at him. Walls slammed down around me. How could he affect me like this, particularly while wearing a Buck Rogers T-shirt? It had been three months. Why wasn't I over him? Why did I still want to cry or break something whenever I saw him? â€Å"Whoa, Kincaid,† said Doug, partially distracting me from my angst. He glanced at my outfit and raised an eyebrow. â€Å"We interrupting your social life?† I wore a knee-length black trench coat over a short red dress. My makeup was done to seductive perfection, whorish dark eyeliner and lipstick to match the dress. Shape-shifting in the car would have been a snap, but I didn't feel like I needed to prove anything here. In fact, I kind of reveled in my tramp look tonight. â€Å"Apparently this is my social life, if I'm pathetic enough to come in on a Saturday night.† I forced myself to focus on Doug and Maddie only, trying hard not to look at Seth's soft, coppery brown hair or gentle eyes. Why did he have to be here of all nights? The answer: he was here every night. He was an author and did his best work in coffee shops. When we'd broken up, he'd tried to tactfully find another and stay away from me, but Maddie-oblivious to his reasons-had begged him to stay at the bookstore's. â€Å"Where are you going?† asked Maddie. â€Å"Is everything okay?† â€Å"Yeah, yeah,† I said brusquely. â€Å"Long story.† I beckoned Maddie and Doug to the clipboard, explaining again how I was pretty sure the store would be fine without my labor, so long as they could cover the tasks I did as manager. We sketched out a brief list of my responsibilities, like payroll and inventory, and began divvying them up. Doug tapped the list. â€Å"I've done all these before, at one time or another. They're no problem. I'll take the first half.† He elbowed his sister. â€Å"What about you? You gonna take the rest and pull your share here?† Maddie pursed her lips. She was immensely talented but suffered from bouts of insecurity, which I'd repeatedly told her was ridiculous. She'd improved a lot over the months-again, thanks to me-but still faltered. â€Å"I didn't realize you did so much. I hope I can learn it all.† â€Å"Stop playing coy. I'll teach you,† said Doug. â€Å"You'll be as good as Kincaid in no time.† â€Å"Yeah,† I said dryly. â€Å"We're practically interchangeable anyway.† Out of the corner of my eye, I saw Seth shift uncomfortably. â€Å"The whole thing seems kind of sketchy, though,† remarked Doug, tilting his head so that his black hair fell away from his face. â€Å"You're going to be gone, but you're not sure when or how long? I thought you were the reliable one around here.† â€Å"It's†¦family stuff,† I told them. â€Å"Just gotta be dealt with. Besides, now you can have a chance to be responsible. You should be thanking me, Doug.† He stuck his tongue out at me. â€Å"Is Warren going to be okay with it?† asked Maddie, still fretting on my behalf. â€Å"Let me deal with Warren,† I assured her. Doug scoffed at that, but Maddie didn't catch on. Warren, the store's marginally moral owner, had been a longtime sex buddy of mine. He gave me about as much energy as Dante, but he was convenient and suited my mood lately. I'd stopped our tryst while dating Seth but had since returned to old habits. Doug had known about my affair with Warren then and now but was tactful enough to leave me to my own choices, aside from the occasional bit of eye rolling. I suspected Seth knew what was going on too, but I didn't care. Warren wasn't going to give me any grief about taking time off. I was too good at what I did, both at work and in the bedroom. We shuffled one shift where I was supposed to have closed, and then I tossed the clipboard back on its pile, suddenly needing to get out of there as soon as possible. â€Å"Alright. Thanks, team. I'll leave you to your work.† â€Å"Off to hit the town?† asked Doug, still amused. â€Å"I can join you in about a half-hour. I know a killer party.† I shook my head. â€Å"Already hit the town. I'm heading home.† â€Å"Loser,† he called after me. Maddie wished me well with my mysterious time off, and then I left them, walking through the store and exchanging greetings with my other co-workers as they scurried around with their closing tasks. I'd nearly made it to the door when I heard someone call my name. I turned and saw Casey hurrying toward me. She was twenty or so and went to the University of Washington. She'd worked here almost the entire time she'd been in college and was one of our best employees. So, I stopped and forced a smile, my eyes straying longingly toward the door. â€Å"Hey, what's up?† She grinned, dark eyes sparkling. â€Å"I wanted to know if you were going to go to my party next weekend,† she said. â€Å"You never answered the e-mail.† I didn't remember any e-mail, but then, I'd been pretty trigger-happy with the delete key lately. â€Å"I didn't get it,† I lied. â€Å"What's going on?† â€Å"It's my graduation party. This Sunday.† I frowned. â€Å"It's April.† â€Å"I'm graduating early. I got all my credits finished up, so I don't have to do spring quarter. Pretty cool, huh?† â€Å"Whoa,† I said, actually impressed. â€Å"That is cool. Math, right?† â€Å"Math and Latvian.† â€Å"Why on earth-never mind.† Now was not the time to pursue why someone of Filipino heritage was studying Baltic languages. â€Å"I wish I could go, but I'm leaving town tomorrow for some family stuff and don't know when I'll be back. I'm really sorry.† Casey's face fell a little, but she told me she understood. And like Maddie, she wished me well and hoped my â€Å"family† business would be taken care of easily. That made two of us. She left me and went to finish her closing tasks. As soon as I cleared the store's door and was outdoors, I stopped and exhaled. Breezy night air washed over me. Being in Seth's presence was smothering. It stirred up too much in me. Even while talking business and numbers with Doug and Maddie, most of my attention had been on Seth-exactly how far away he stood from me, the way he smelled, the way his messy hair stuck up today. Everything else had been background noise compared to him. Reaching into my purse with shaking hands, I pulled out my cigarettes, desperately needing one for the walk home. I'd smoked for a century or so and stopped ten years ago, something I'd been very proud of, even though I was immune to the effects. Stress had driven me to pick up the habit again. I felt a little bad about subjecting others to secondhand smoke, but honestly, smoking was the least of my problems right now. â€Å"Fuck.† I flicked the switch on my lighter and got nothing. Three more flicks produced similar results. Holding the lighter up to my ear, I shook it. Nothing. It was out of fluid. â€Å"Fuck,† I repeated. I only lived a few blocks away, but somehow, that walk was now going to be agony. Suddenly, I heard what sounded like a boot scuff around the corner of the building. Frowning, I took a few steps forward, wondering if anyone was there. This area was pretty safe, but Lower Queen Anne still had its share of vagrants. Yet, when I glanced around the corner, there was no one there. There was, however, a pack of matches lying on the ground. Kneeling down, I picked the book up and examined them. Mark's Mad Martini Bar. I'd been there a long time ago. It was in Upper Queen Anne, not too far away if you didn't mind trekking up the hill. It wasn't unreasonable that a pack of their matches would find their way here. What was weird was that the matches showed up right when I needed them. Behind me, I heard the store's door open. â€Å"Georgina?† I rose and turned sharply around. Seth. â€Å"Hey,† I said, hoping for blandness. The smothering feeling returned. Light from inside the store lit up his features in the twilight, and I ate up every line and angle of his face. His eyes looked dark in the dimness, but in full light, they were brown infused with amber. He stuffed his hands into his pockets, and his gaze wouldn't meet mine. It was painfully reminiscent of how he'd been when we first met, too shy to look directly at me. â€Å"I wanted to see if you were okay,† he said after several awkward moments. I turned the matches over in my hand a couple of times and then placed them in my purse's outer pocket. â€Å"I'm fine,† I said, keeping my voice cool and distant. â€Å"It's just†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He relaxed slightly and gave a small, rueful laugh. â€Å"When you're vague about your activities and mention ‘family,' it usually means immortal business. And immortal business always means trouble.† I started to smile, then immediately squelched it. â€Å"Yeah, it does, and believe me, it's a great one this time.† Even after everything that had gone down between us, there was such a comfort and familiarity with him that I immediately wanted to launch in and recap the story for him. I could already see us both laughing at the idea of Canadian Satanists. I could perfectly picture the way Seth would shake his head in exasperation. But it wasn't to be. I was too hurt and too proud to even allow him friendship, so I just shrugged and said, â€Å"But it'll work out. It always does.† â€Å"Yeah†¦but usually not without a lot of hassle. I'm just worried about you, that's all.† â€Å"You don't have to be.† Not anymore . â€Å"I'm not in any danger. Mostly just annoyed.† He opened his mouth to speak, and I knew the gesture. He wanted to argue that there was still cause for concern-but times had changed. He swallowed and let the comment go. More silence fell. I knew I should leave, but somehow, I couldn't make myself do it. He apparently couldn't either. â€Å"You†¦you look really great tonight,† he said at last, still fumbling for conversation. There was a catch in his voice. He knew my looks tonight had to do with more than just my body and outfit. The energy I'd stolen from sleeping with the therapist wreathed me. Life and its power were irresistible to all creatures, mortal and immortal alike. Immortals could literally see that life glowing around me. To mortals, I simply looked beautiful. Unearthly. Perfect. For the sake of politeness, I pretended he was complimenting me for normal things. â€Å"Thanks. I was out with the others when all this†¦stuff†¦went down. It's kind of put a damper on my partying, though.† He nodded by way of answer and shifted so that he actually made eye contact. I wished he hadn't. My heart melted inside me, and I felt a sob building in my chest. Desperate for something to do, I took out the serendipitous matches and lit the cigarette I'd been holding the whole time. I took a long drag and exhaled. Seth stepped back. He wasn't a fan of smoking. It was like I suddenly had armor. â€Å"Well,† I said, feeling bolder, â€Å"I should go home and pack. See you around.† I turned and had only taken a step when he called out to me. â€Å"Georgina?† I glanced back. â€Å"Yeah?† â€Å"Do you†¦um†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He faltered, and again, I was reminded of that long-ago Seth. Bittersweet feelings burned within me. â€Å"Do you need someone to feed your cat?† I didn't know whether to laugh or cry. â€Å"No, but thanks. Cody'll do it.† I spoke the next words, fully knowing they'd inflict damage. â€Å"Or Dante will.† Seth flinched, and somehow, I felt both triumphant and sad at the same time. â€Å"No problem,† he said haltingly. â€Å"Just thought I'd, you know, check.† â€Å"Thanks,† I said again. We held each other's gazes a few more moments, and then I turned away and walked off into the night.

The Bracero Program Cheap Labor for US Farms

From 1942 to 1964, the Bracero Program allowed millions of Mexican citizens to enter the United States temporarily to work on farms, railroads, and in factories. Today, as immigration reform and foreign guest worker programs remain contentious topics of public debate, it is important to understand the details and impacts of this program on American history and society. Key Takeaways: The Bracero Program The Bracero Program was an agreement between the United States and Mexico that allowed nearly 4.6 million Mexican citizens to enter the U.S. temporarily to work on farms, railroads, and in factories between 1942 and 1964.The Bracero Program was originally intended to help American farms and factories remain productive during World War II.Bracero farm workers suffered racial and wage discrimination, along with substandard working and living conditions.Despite the mistreatment of the workers, the Bracero Program led to positive changes in U.S. immigration and labor policy. What Is the Bracero Program? The Bracero Program—from a Spanish meaning â€Å"one who works using his arms†Ã¢â‚¬â€was a series of laws and bi-lateral diplomatic agreements initiated on August 4, 1942, between the governments of the United States and Mexico, which both encouraged and allowed Mexican citizens to enter and remain in the U.S. temporarily while working under short-term labor contracts. The first Mexican bracero workers were admitted on September 27, 1942, and by the time the program ended in 1964, nearly 4.6 million Mexican citizens had been legally hired to work in the United States, mainly on farms in Texas, California, and the Pacific Northwest. With many workers returning several times under different contracts, the Bracero Program remains the largest contract labor program in U.S. history. Prophetically, an earlier bi-lateral Mexican guest farm worker program between 1917 and 1921 had left the Mexican government dissatisfied because of the numerous incidents of racial and wage discrimination experienced by many of the braceros. Background: Driving Factors The Bracero Program was intended as a solution to the tremendous labor shortage created in the United States by World War II. While women and men of all ages worked around the clock in factories, the healthiest and strongest young Americans were fighting the war. As droves of American farm workers either joined the military or took better-paying jobs in the defense industry, the U.S. looked to Mexico as a ready source of labor. Days after Mexico declared war on the Axis nations on June 1, 1942, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt asked the Department of State to negotiate an agreement with Mexico on the importation of foreign labor. Providing the U.S. with laborers allowed Mexico to aid the Allied war effort while bolstering its own struggling economy. Details of the Bracero Program The Bracero Program was established by an executive order issued by President Roosevelt in July 1942 and formally initiated on August 4, 1942, when representatives of the United States and Mexico signed the Mexican Farm Labor Agreement. While intended to last only until the end of the war, the program was extended by the Migrant Labor Agreement in 1951 and was not terminated until the end of 1964. Over the program’s 22-year duration, U.S. employers provided jobs to nearly 5 million braceros in 24 states. Under the basic terms of the agreement, temporary Mexican farm workers were to be paid a minimum wage of 30 cents an hour and guaranteed decent living conditions, including sanitation, housing, and food. The agreement also promised that bracero workers were to be protected from racial discrimination, such as being excluded from public facilities posted as â€Å"whites only.† Problems With the Bracero Program While the Bracero Program did assist the United States war effort and forever advanced the productivity of American agriculture, it suffered from significant political and social problems. Illegal Immigration From 1942 to 1947, only about 260,000 Mexican braceros were hired, amounting to less than 10 percent of the total number of workers hired in the U.S. over the period. However, American growers became increasingly dependent on Mexican workers and found it easier to go around the Bracero Program’s complicated contract process by hiring undocumented immigrants. In addition, the Mexican government’s inability to process the unexpectedly large number of program applicants prompted many Mexican citizens to enter the U.S. illegally. By the time the program ended in 1964, the number of Mexican workers who had entered the U.S. illegally surpassed the nearly 5 million legally-processed braceros. In 1951, President Harry Truman extended the Bracero Program. However, by 1954, the rapidly growing number of undocumented migrants drove the United States to launch Operation Wetback—still the largest deportation sweep in American history. Over the two years of the operation, over 1.1 million illegal workers were returned to Mexico. Northwestern Bracero Labor Strikes Between 1943 and 1954, over a dozen strikes and work stoppages were staged, mainly in the Pacific Northwest, by braceros protesting racial discrimination, low wages, and poor working and living conditions. The most notable of these was the 1943 strike at the Blue Mountain Cannery in Dayton, Washington, during which Mexican braceros and Japanese-American workers joined forces. The U.S. government had allowed 10,000 of the some 120,000 Japanese Americans who had been forced into internment camps during World War II to leave the camps and work alongside Mexican braceros on farms in the Pacific Northwest. In late July 1943, a white female Dayton resident claimed that she had been assaulted by a local farm worker she described as â€Å"looking Mexican.† Without investigating the alleged incident, the Dayton sheriff’s office immediately imposed a â€Å"restriction order† prohibiting all â€Å"males of Japanese and or Mexican extraction† from entering any residential district of the city.   Calling the order a case of racial discrimination, some 170 Mexican braceros and 230 Japanese-American farm workers went on strike just as the pea harvest was about to begin. Concerned for the success of the critical harvest, local officials called for the U.S. government to send in Army troops to force the striking workers back into the fields. However, after several meetings between government and local officials and representatives of the workers, the restriction order was rescinded and the sheriff’s office agreed to drop any further investigation of the alleged assault. Two days later, the strike ended as the workers returned to the fields to complete a record pea harvest.   Most of the bracero strikes took place in the Pacific Northwest because of the region’s distance from the Mexican border. Employers in the states adjoining the border from California to Texas found it easier to threaten braceros with deportation. Knowing they could be easily and quickly replaced, braceros in the Southwest were more likely to grudgingly accept lower wages and worse living and working conditions than those in the Northwest. Mistreatment of the Braceros Throughout its 40-year existence, the Bracero Program was besieged by accusations from civil rights and farm labor activists like Cesar Chavez that many braceros suffered gross mistreatment—sometimes bordering on slavery—at the hands of their U.S. employers. Braceros complained of unsafe housing, overt racial discrimination, repeated disputes over unpaid wages, the absence of health care, and lack of representation. In some cases, workers were housed in converted barns or tents without running water or sanitary facilities. They were often herded on poorly maintained and unsafely driven buses and trucks to be taken to and from the fields. Despite the back-breaking â€Å"stoop labor† and mistreatment, most braceros endured the conditions with expectations of making more money than they could in Mexico. In her 1948 book â€Å"Latin Americans in Texas,† author Pauline R. Kibbe, executive secretary of the Good Neighbor Commission of Texas, wrote that a bracero in West Texas was: â€Å"...regarded as a necessary evil, nothing more nor less than an unavoidable adjunct to the harvest season. Judging by the treatment that has been accorded him in that section of the state, one might assume that he is not a human being at all, but a species of farm implement that comes mysteriously and spontaneously into being coincident with the maturing of cotton, that requires no upkeep or special consideration during the period of its usefulness, needs no protection from the elements, and when the crop has been harvested, vanishes into the limbo of forgotten things until the next harvest season rolls around. He has no past, no future, only a brief and anonymous present.† Mexican Migrant Family Leaving to Help Harvest Across the Border. Corbis Historical/Getty Images After the Braceros Came the A-TEAM When the Bracero Program ended in 1964, American farmers complained to the government that the Mexican workers had done jobs that Americans refused to do and that their crops would rot in the fields without them. In response, U.S. Secretary of Labor W. Willard Wirtz, on May 5, 1965— ironically Cinco de Mayo, a Mexican holiday—announced a plan intended to replace at least some of the hundreds of thousands of Mexican farm workers with healthy young Americans. Called the A-TEAM, an acronym for Athletes in Temporary Employment as Agricultural Manpower, the plan called for the recruitment of up to 20,000 male American high school athletes to work on farms in California and Texas during summer harvest seasons. Citing the farm labor shortage and the lack of part-time jobs for high school students, Sec. Wirtz stated of the young athletes, â€Å"They can do the work. They are entitled to a chance at it.† However, as the farmers had predicted, fewer than 3,500 A-TEAM recruits ever signed up to work their fields, and many of them soon quit or went on strike complaining of the back-breaking nature of harvesting ground-growing crops, the oppressive heat, low pay, and poor living conditions. The Department of Labor permanently benched the A-TEAM after the first summer. The Legacy of the Bracero Program The story of the Bracero Program is one of struggle and success. While many bracero workers suffered severe exploitation and discrimination, their experiences would contribute to lasting positive impacts on U.S. immigration and labor policy. American farmers quickly adjusted to the end of the Bracero Program, as by the end of 1965, some 465,000 migrants made up a record 15 percent of the 3.1 million employed U.S. farm workers. Many U.S. farm owners created labor associations that increased labor market efficiency, reduced labor costs, and increased the average wages of all farm workers—immigrant and American alike. For example, the average pay for lemon harvesters in Ventura County, California, increased from $1.77 per hour in 1965 to $5.63 by 1978.   Another outgrowth of the Bracero Program was the rapid increase in development of labor-saving farm mechanization. The increasing ability of machines—rather than hands—to harvest staple crops like tomatoes helped establish American farms as the most productive on the planet today. Finally, the Bracero Program led to the successful unionization of farm workers. Formed in 1962, the United Farm Workers, headed by Cesar Chavez, organized American farm workers into a cohesive and powerful collective bargaining unit for the first time. According to political scientist Manuel Garcia y Griego, the Bracero Program â€Å"left an important legacy for the economies, migration patterns, and politics of the United States and Mexico.†Ã‚   Sources and Suggested References Scruggs, Otey M. Evolution of the Mexican Farm Labor Agreement of 1942 Agricultural History Vol. 34, No. 3.Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program 1942 - 1964 National Museum of American History (2013).Kibbe, Pauline R. Latin Americans in Texas The University of New Mexico Press (1948)Clemens, Michael A.; Lewis, Ethan G.; Postel, Hannah M. (June 2018). Immigration Restrictions as Active Labor Market Policy: Evidence from the Mexican Bracero Exclusion American Economic Review.Braceros: History, Compensation Rural Migration News. April 2006, Volume 12, Number 2. The University of California Davis.Garcà ­a y Griego, Manuel. The Importation of Mexican Contract Laborers to the United States, 1942–1964 Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources (1996)